Thursday, February 23, 2012

GlobalMedia: Development Communication: Diffusion of Innovations (U4-P3)

Everett Rogers
Discuss Diffusion of Innovations as an Approach to Development.

Everett Rogers wrote Diffusion of Innovations (1962, 1971, 1983, 1995, 2003).

What is an innovation?
  • An idea, object or practice...
  • Perceived as new...
  • By an individual or organization.


What is the diffusion of innovations?
  • An innovation ...
  • Communicated via channels...
  • Over time...
  • Among the members of a social system.




CHARACTERISTICS OF INNOVATIONS
The characteristics (or attributes) of innovations, as perceived by individuals, help to explain their rate of adoption.  Characteristics of innovations are one important set of variables influencing the rate of adoption.

  1. Relative Advantage
    1. Relative advantage is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better than the idea it supersedes
    2. e.g. economic profitability, decrease in discomfort, savings in time and effort, immediacy of reward
  2. Compatibility
    1. Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent with existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters.
    2. Example: rap music and the role of MTV in making rap accessible and acceptable for all youth (Black & White).
  3. Complexity
    1. Complexity is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to understand and use.
    2. Example: DOS vs. Windows
  4. Trialability
    1. Trialability is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis.
  5. Observability
    1. Observability is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others.
    2. Examples: solar panels & DBS, PrimeStar, DISH and the like

Given the above, how could diffusion of innovations (a communication theory) be used in development work?


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GlobalMedia: Development Communication: A History (Marshall Plan, etc.) (U4-P2)

"Uncle" Wilbur
A Historical Sketch of Development Communication

First a quick overview...

Dr. Wilbur Schramm
Founder of the social science study of communication (late 40s-50s) and key founder of development communication.
  • 1950s: 
    • Post-WWII & Cold War -- Newly independent nations struggling (the “terrible ascent”)
  • 1960s: 
    • Schramm: How to help them? His answer: w/ mass media - “the great multiplier.” Need to bring in mass media technology.
  • 1970s: 
    • Many countries implemented mass media programs.
  • 1980s: 
    • 1) Concern with “Neo-imperialism”
    • Hamid Mowlana
    • 2) Mowlana: users of mass media blind to the importance of traditional forms of communication in some societies/cultures. “Technology vs. Tradition” (Mowlana)
  • 1990s: 
    • Use of mass media to aid in development, but w/ caution regarding culture. Example: AIDS/HIV education in radio program in Tanzania & TV soap opera in China (Rogers)
  • 2000s: 
    • New issues and use of new communication technologies
(Sources: based on Mowlana, 1996, 1997, Stevenson, 1993, Rogers, 1997)



Now back to the 40s and 50s...

Coming out of World War II the U.S. was in good shape (economically, politically, etc.), but many of the nations of Europe faced problems.

To get a sense of the problem faces see CNN Perspectives Presents Cold War. (See also background info on this CNN series.)

Some of the series is available online.  As you watch the clips below pay close attention to the Marshall Plan.  What relationship does it have to development communication?

U.S. provided $$ and expertise in "reconstructing" Europe. U.S. foreign policy (lead by Truman) changed isolationism to “active leadership.” The U.S. offered the Marshall Plan* (more on Marshall Plan from CNN).

See the clips 0:00 to 1:20 and from 20:28 to 27:46



Why should the U.S. help European countries after WWII?

  1. humanitarian concerns (White Man’s Burden again?)
  2. stop spread of communism!

Truman Doctrine: to defend freedom & democracy worldwide.

Edward T. Hall
After reconstructing Europe Truman offered the world “the benefits of our [U.S.] scientific advances and industrial progress… for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas.”

This was called the Point Four Program. (Director, Edward Hall)
One of the key tasks taken on by Hall was teaching U.S. diplomats intercultural communication skills. The formal study of intercultural communication can be traced back to Hall and this program.  Hall has been called the founding father of intercultural communication study.

The government lacked knowledge on how to develop nations, so they turned to academia. Development theories were developed in economics, psychology, political science, sociology, and communication. For example, Wilbur Schramm offered his theory/approach to development.  By the mid-70s, development programs were recognized an ineffective. Schramm, Rogers and others recognized the faults.

Everett M. Rogers
What was wrong? According to Rogers (1976)
The old way of doing development programs had the following errors:

  1. They assume infinite economic growth, ignore problems like population growth, pollution, etc., and do not take into account the "quality of life."
  2. They emphasize technology and capital rather than labor, thus encouraging economic dependence on advanced countries. Low priority to agriculture.
  3. It blames the developing countries for their failings, ignoring external factors beyond their control.
  4. It takes an ethnocentric (Western) bias by emphasizing the modernization of "traditional" individuals.


(Sources: International Encyclopedia of Communication, "Development Communication," 1989; "Marshall Plan" Britannica Online.].).




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Television Academy Summer Internship

The Television Academy Foundation is now accepting applications for the Summer 2012 Internship Program. Visit our website at http://www.emmysfoundation.org/internship-programs for more information. The postmark deadline is March 15, 2012.

"The TV Academy Foundation's summer Student Internship Program provides over 40 industry-wide internships to college and graduate students from across the country, and has been hailed for more than a decade as one of the top ten internships in the country. The program gives college students in-depth exposure to professional television production during an eight-week summer period in Los Angeles."


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Wednesday, February 22, 2012

DigPhotog: The Ethics of Photo Manipulation

Digital photo manipulation: "the application of image editing techniques to photographs in order to create an illusion or deception (in contrast to mere enhancement or correction), through analog or digital means." (Wikipedia)

Ethics: "(1) the discipline dealing with what is good and bad and with moral duty and obligation. (2) a set of moral principles : a theory or system of moral values —often used in plural but singular or plural in construction... (3) the principles of conduct governing an individual or a group." (Merriam-Webster)


What are your ethical standards when it comes to digital manipulation?
When is it O.K. to manipulate a photograph and when is it not?
Would it be acceptable in the area of art, but not in journalism?  Why?

Digital manipulation of photos can come up in the realm of politics as in the Fox News clip below.  The third photo shown (with the poodle) is clearly "photoshopped," but so are the previous two photos of the two men (yellowed teeth, etc.).



Digital manipulation controversies can also show up in the realm of advertising with some racist overtones.  
One example: Did Vanity Fair lighten Beyonce’s skin? - Entertainment - Access Hollywood - TODAY.com.  For more on this story and other related digital manipulations in the news, see this set of links.




Browse through the many examples of photo manipulation found on Photo Tampering Throughout History.  This site has over 120 examples of photo manipulations from the late 1800s to today.  There are 26 examples from 2011.  As you check out the examples on the site, see if you can fine tune your ethical standards about photo manipulation.  When is it O.K.?  When is it not?


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DigPhotog: The Technical Aspects of Digital Photography [VID]

If you are looking for videos that explain the technical basics of digital photography, I'd recommend Brian Ratty's video series (Digital Photography - The Camera (Tutorial DVD)).  The videos are now a little dated, but still cover the basics well.  Below are a few excerpts from the video series.










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Tuesday, February 21, 2012

GlobalMedia: Development Communication: Some Key Terms (U4-P1)


Define/explain the terms development, development communication and development journalism.


Development: "purposive changes undertaken in a society to achieve what may be regarded generally as a different ('improved') state of social and economic affairs"(Hernández-Ramos & Schramm, 1989).


Development projects typically focus on certain areas/issue of a society (e.g. agriculture, health, nutrition, family planning, women's empowerment, etc.)

Development communication: the use of communication technology and principles to aid in the development of a society.


Development journalism: a 'branch' of development communication in which news media are used.
Journalism: "the collection and editing of news for presentation through the media"(M-W Dictionary)



If you had lots of money (through a grant, etc.) and you wanted to do good in the world, what would you do?  If you wanted to help with some health issue in another country, what would you do?
If you wanted to help and you wanted to put your media knowledge and media skills to use, what would you do?





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GlobalMedia: Why Study Intercultural Communication? (U3-P7)

imperative: "not to be avoided or evaded." (Merriam-Webster's)

So an imperative is something that can't be avoided.

Why study intercultural communication?  Because we can't avoid it.  For example, continuing advances in communication and transportation technologies will mean more and more people from different cultures will come in contact.

  • Technological imperative
    • Communication Technology
    • Transportation Technology
  • Demographical imperative
    • U.S. Demographics (e.g., raise in Hispanic pop.)
    • Immigration
  • Economic imperative (globalization)
  • Peace imperative
  • Self-awareness imperative
  • Ethical imperative

Why is it important to understand intercultural communication when studying development and global communication?  What is the relationship?


Based on Martin & Nakayama

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GlobalMedia: "The Ugly American" (U3-P6)

Counterproductive attitudes that Americans can have about people from other countries?*
  • "Foreigners coming to live in the U.S. should adapt American ways."
  • "Asians do many things backwards."
  • "Much of the world’s population remains underdeveloped because they don’t take the initiative to develop themselves."
  • "Americans have been very generous in teaching other people how to do things the right way."
  • "English should be accepted as the universal language."

Q: Central theme in the counterproductive attitudes expressed above?
A: Ethnocentrism: a belief that your groups ways are the best ways.

Imagine a person working in development communication who heads into a development project abroad with the above attitudes. How would things work out?



The phrase "ugly American" comes, in part, from a novel about an American who travels abroad and expresses an ethnocentric attitude.  The novel was also made into a film staring Marlon Brando.


Do you spot the ethnocentric attitude from John Smith in this Pocahontas clip?





* Of course, this could go the other way. People in other countries can have ethnocentric views toward the U.S. --  The ugly _____.


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GlobalMedia: Hofstede’s Dimensions of Value Orientation (U3-P5)

Geert Hofstede during the 1980s surveyed over 100,000 workers in multinational corporations in forty countries.

He found 4 main dimensions along which countries/cultures differ. Each country was ranked according to his dimensions.

  • 1. Individualism - Collectivism
    • I versus We
    • e.g., “Squeaking wheel gets the greasy.”
    • e.g., “The nail that sticks up gets pounded down.”
    • Indiv. (e.g., U.S. & Australia) <--------> Coll (e.g., Taiwan & Peru)
  • 2. Uncertainty Avoidance
    • The extent to which a culture feels threatened by the unknown.
    • Hi-U.A. cultures try to avoid uncertainty.
    • Hi UA (e.g., Greece & Japan) <---> Low UA (e.g. U.S. & Denmark )
  • 3. Power Distance
    • The extent to which a culture accepts inequality.
    • Hi-P.D. cultures accept inequality in relationships.
    • Hi PD (e.g. Philippines & India) <----> Low PD (e.g. Sweden & N.Z.)
  • 4. Masculinity and Femininity
    • Masculinity = assertiveness, ambition, possessions...
    • Femininity = caring and nurturing...
    • M (e.g., Japan & Italy) <-----------> F (e.g., Norway & Denmark)




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GlobalMedia: Cultural Values (U3-P4)

What are values?

"Social principles, goals, or standards accepted by persons in a culture. They are learned by contacts with the family, teachers, and religious leaders. The media also may influence one’s value system."

Or what are the things that a culture finds valuable, important.

Money?   Family?  






















What are your values?  Where did you get them?  Are there some values more important than others?  What is your most important value?  Interacted with somebody who has a different set of values?


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GlobalMedia: A Model of Intercultural Communication (U3-P3)





















The goal is effective intercultural communication, but what are some of the barriers that can cause problems?


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Monday, February 20, 2012

GlobalMedia: Definitions and Metaphors for Culture (U3-P2)

What is culture?

There are hundreds of definitions of culture in the literature.
Let's use this one:

Culture is a set of shared knowledge that influences a particular group of people’s behavior. (Hart)


Hofstede's Computer Metaphor:
Culture is the software of the mind.
We are programmed by our experiences.

File:Iceberg.jpg
Created by Uwe Kils 
The Iceberg Metaphor of Culture
"Above the waterline—what we can see; behaviors that are visible.
Below the waterline—what we cannot see; behaviors that are not visible or that do not make sense."



















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GlobalMedia: Tower of Babel (U3-P1)


File:Brueghel-tower-of-babel.jpg
The Tower of Babel by Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1563). Image in the public domain.

The image above depicts the Biblical story of how different languages and cultures came to be.
So, what is the story and what does it have to do with intercultural communication?


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Thursday, February 16, 2012

GlobalMedia: Media Imperialism & the Mindset of "The Burden" (U2-P4)

Media Imperialism (Anglo-American Dominance)

Imperialism*: “the extension or imposition of power, authority, or influence.” (Meriam-Webster Dictionary Online)

Imperialism is justified under “the White Man’s Burden” views. (See 1899 poem by Rudyard Kipling entitled “White Man’s Burden”)

Part of Poem:

"Take up the White Man's burden‑‑
        Send forth the best ye breed‑‑
Go, bind your sons to exile
        To serve your captives' need;
To wait, in heavy harness,
       On fluttered folk and wild‑‑
Your new‑caught sullen peoples,
       Half devil and half child."

This is an example of the imperialistic mindset.

This cartoon from 1903 is a follow-up to the poem and the imperialistic, racist mindset.


















Where is the "native" being taken?  For what purpose?

And now...
Media Imperialism: “the imbalance and inequality in flow of mass media materials between developed and developing countries, and its subsequent effect on the developing country’s society and culture”(Araby in Frederick,1994).

Can you develop another definition related more to the definition of imperialism above?

Western (American) Media Imperialism.
Q: What American values can be found in its media products?
A: Individualism*, materialism*, adventurism*, etc.

Effects of Media Imperialism?



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GlobalMedia: National Sovereignty and Transborder Data Flow (U2-P3)

Explain the issue of international communication, TDF, and national sovereignty.

Sovereignty*: “a country’s right to protect its borders from military aggression; to preserve its natural wealth and resources; and to choose its political, social, economic, and cultural systems without interference by another state”(Frederick, p.121).

TDF (transborder data flow): the flow of banking, insurance, credit and other similar information across national boundaries via mainly computer networks (a.k.a. TBDF).


Some countries “farm” their data management tasks out to other countries (mainly U.S.). Issues?

Information is Power!!

Other examples:
Direct Broadcast Satellites (DBS).... spillover
Remote-sensing satellites used to gather information from the Earth’s surface.

Does one country have the right to gather information about another country via remote-sensing satellites?



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GlobalMedia: New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) (U2-P2)

“New World Information and Communication Order” (NWICO) [a.k.a. NWIO].

  • By the early 1970s many nations see the strong need to alleviate/lessen the problems related to international communication (see issues/controversies covered above). They call for NWICO. They seek a new world policy.
  • Controversy about controversies.
  • Problem dealt with mainly within UNESCO.
  • "UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) – contributes to peace and security in the world by promoting collaboration among nations through education, science, culture and communication in order to further universal respect for justice, for the rule of law and for the human rights and fundamental freedoms which are affirmed for the peoples of the world, without distinction of race, sex, language or religion, by the Charter of the United Nations."


‘76-‘78
The Mass Media Declaration calls for “free flow and a wider and more balanced flow of information.”  Declaration was passed, but will to implement was weak.
‘79-‘80
Begins to unravel. Western gov’t & media concerned.  Agreed to MacBride Commission to study world “communication problems.”
‘80-‘83
Western press lobby groups and U.S. press begin to play a stronger role.  Influencing U.S. gov’t.
12/84
U.S. (Reagan administration w/ influence from the Heritage Foundation) withdraws from UNESCO
‘85-
UNESCO’s stance of NWICO wavers.  NWICO dead?  We have a New Order but it is “the order of the advanced industrialized nations” (Mowlana).



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GlobalMedia: Important Global Communication Issues (U2-P1)

List major global issues (“controversies”) relevant to an understanding of international communication.
  • Communication, TDF, and National Sovereignty^
  • Increasing Concentration & Transnationalization
  • Deregulation and Privatization
  • The “Flow” Controversy
  • The “News Values” Controversy (Biases in News)
  • Media Imperialism (Anglo-American Dominance)^
  • Communication Policies
  • Protection and Licensing of Journalists^
  • Codes of Ethics for Media Practice
  • The Status of Women in INC^
  • “New World Information and Communication Order”^

^ To be covered in more detail later.
(Originally based on Frederick, 1993; updated)


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GlobalMedia: Fortner's Characteristics of International Communication.


  1. Intentionality
    1. intentional - e.g., Voice of America (listen now)
    2. unintentional - e.g., radio "spillover"
  2. Channels
    1. public - e.g., TV or radio broadcast
    2. private - e.g., encrypted Internet message
  3. Distributive Technologies
    1. radio/TV waves, cables/wires, film/cassettes, CDs, etc.
  4. Content Form
    1. entertainment
    2. news
    3. information/data
  5. Cultural Consequences
    1. Dominant countries impose cultural values on other countries?
    2. MTV stations in Asia?
  6. Political Nature
    1. "All [INC] is poltical in one way or another" (Fortner).
    2. Political = power/control


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GlobalMedia: Intercultural Comm & International/Global Comm (U1-P3)

Define intercultural communication.
How does intercultural communication compare to global/international communication?

Some definitions for intercultural communication:

  • "Communication between people of different cultures, subcultures, or subgroup identifications" (Jandt).
  • "...process in which people from different cultures create shared meaning" (Lustig & Koester).
  • "dyadic or small group (interpersonal) communication between people of different cultures."


Which are examples of intercultural communication?

  • A Japanese student interacting with a U.S. American professor.
  • A German working with a Russian on an international research project.
  • A Chinese wife talking with her U.S. American husband.
  • A long-distance telephone conversation between an Iranian in Iran and a U.S. American in the United States.
  • President Obama talking with German leader.


Distinguish between intercultural communication and international/global communication.


Intercultural Communication
International/Global Communication
Between cultures
Between nations
Non-governmental communication
Governmental communication
Informal
Formal
Interpersonal communication
Mass-mediated communication
Two-way
One-way

Source: Hart, 1992 and Harms, 1973.


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