This is a blog about my teaching, research and service with some occasional personal comments thrown in. These are my notes on a variety of topics. If you want to follow my blog posts on a specific topic, then see the Table of Contents in the right-hand column. While I try to work in the realm of facts, logic and moral absolutes, if there are any opinions expressed here, they are my own. -WilliamHartPhD
So, dehumanization of the enemy was done in the past all over the world. Does it still happen in the 21st century? That's the question that my co-author and I asked in our study of editorial cartoons of bin Laden and the Taliban after the events of 9/11.
In short, our study found that people (U.S. leaders and editorial cartoonist, in this case) continued to use the dehumanizing visual metaphors identified by Keen -- enemy-as-animal, enemy-as-barbarian, enemy-as-criminal, etc.
We closed our book chapter with the following important note.
Does this process of dehumanization continue today? Let's check the news.
Why is it that during times of war people see the enemy of as animals, as monsters, as barbarians, as devil or death? Put differently, why do people dehumanize the enemy? What purpose does it serve?
Social psychologist Sam Keen offers some answers in his book and a doc based on the book. Here's the beginning of the doc. I'd encourage you to see the rest.
How do we dehumanize? Why do we dehumanize? Why do we make the enemy less than human?
According to Keen, there are a dozen or so common ways that the enemy is seen.
Enemy-as-Animal,
Enemy-as-Barbarian,
Enemy-as-Death,
Enemy-as-Enemy-of-God,
Enemy-as-Criminal,
Enemy-as-All-the-Same
etc.
Keen argues that the enemy is dehumanized because it justifies the killing of the enemy. If the enemy is not a civilized human like us, then, according to Keen, the guilt associated with killing then enemy is greatly lessened and killing is easier.
During World War II the Nazis dehumanized Jewish people. Notice the dehumanization of Jewish people in the Nazi propaganda film called the "Eternal Jews". Watch at least the first five minutes of the film. What was the purpose of this dehumanization of Jewish people?
Just in a 5 minute clip from about 13:45 to 18:37, what dehumanizing metaphors are used?
If you are interested, for more a detailed study of the dehumanizing metaphors used in The Eternal Jew, see:
Hassencahl F. & Hart, W. B. (March, 2013).A fantasy-theme analysis of Der Ewige Jude(The Eternal Jew): From WWII Nazi propaganda to YouTube today.A paper presented at the national Popular Culture Association convention, Washington, DC.
Note: See in relationship between dehumanizing an enemy in war time andracism?
Spot any dehumanization in the following U.S. training film from World War II?
The following is a 1945 World War II propaganda film released by the U.S. War Department entitled "Know Your Enemy: Japan" Who watched this film? What was the purpose of the film?
What does Friedman mean when he says the world is flat?
What are the 3 eras of globalization according to Friedman?
How does this connect with our earlier coverage of globalization?
Is Friedman right? Pankaj Ghemawat: Actually, the world isn't flat.
Key terms: globalization, social media, anti-globalization movement, What is globaloney? How is Ghemawat using the term?
In the past this term referred to an unrealistic foreign policy or global outlook. That fits Ghemawat's usage, but Ghemawat is more specific. How? See 'globaloney' definitions below.
Other than helping individuals to communicate, what grander social role does the Internet play?
For example, the Internet can be used to speak to power and cause social change. In the quote below McPhail notes the role blogs played in challenging power in 2002.
Quote originally taken from 2nd edition of Global Communication.
So, in the United States the Internet can be used to speak to power, but what about in other countries. For the Internet to play a strong role, there would need to be a substantial amount of Internet users in a country. What sort of growth is there for Internet use around the world? According to McPhail (2nd edition),
Quote originally taken from 2nd edition of Global Communication.
The 3rd edition of McPhail has some interesting, updated numbers. What changes do you note?
So, Internet use is certainly on the rise around the world, more so in some countries than in others.
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On the world stage, the Internet, specifically social media, has been credited with building revolutions in countries and bringing down dictators.
Take for example, protests in the former-Soviet republic of Moldova in 2009. It was called "Moldova’s Twitter Revolution."
More recently though, when one thinks of social media and revolution, one thinks of the Arab Spring. The Arab Spring is "a revolutionary wave of demonstrations and protests occurring in the Arab world that began on Saturday, 18 December 2010."
A Map of Arab Spring Countries
(Image used under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0, image created by Kwamikagami)
Countries highlighted in black are countries in which the government was overthrown. From left to right the countries are Tunisia, Libya, Egypt and Yemen. Countries highlighted in other colors are countries in which some protesting occurred.
For a sense of the role social media played in Tunisia, see the following news clip.
What exactly did social media do Tunisia? What was the role of social media?
Let's move from a specific example to a broader discussion about the role of social media has played in the Arab Spring. Some say that social media is insignificant and others say social media play a few important roles in revolution. What are both sides of the argument and what are the arguments on both sides. Why, for example, would some say "no, social media doesn't play a role"? To help answer these questions see the Zuckerman video below.
See specifically the presentation from 4:45 to 8:45 and the remainder if interested.
Note: Zuckerman is co-founded international blogging community Global Voices. Check it out of you are interested.
Think of the Internet as the hardware and the World Wide Web as the software that runs on the Internet. The Web is not the hardware. It is collection of interconnected web pages that exist on the Internet.
Now, how did the Internet evolve as a medium of communication from email in the late '60 and early '70s to the web-based communication tools that we have today?
Update to Zuckerman video:
If we can think of the 1990s as the decade of the World Wide Web (web pages, blogs, etc.), we can think of 2000-2010 as the decade of social media. The decade got off to a slow start, but by...
2004: Facebook founded.
2005: YouTube founded. Note the strong social/sharing aspect of YT.
First, you may, depending on where you are and what you are covering, be physically harmed or killed. See Anderson Cooper clip below, for just one example.
And, if you are curious, check out some recent news about about foreign journalists being hurt or killed in the past year month.
It is also not easy being a foreign journalist because you may misread/misunderstand what you are covering in that foreign land. It is a challenge.
“Journalist coverage of foreign places increasingly influences the governance of those places.” (e.g., CNN effect.)
“The emergence of international governance based on foreign news-driven mediated realities has inherent dangers."
“Double Misreadings”?
“Relying on the news media to understand distant places inherently produces a double misreading because…”
Journalist can misread the news event and
We (the audience) can misread what the journalist is saying.
“journalists generally are not equipped to read distant contexts, and neither are their audiences."
Journalist misread for several reasons.
“First, journalists arriving in a new context are foreigners [who don’t know the history, the religions, etc.]
“Misreadings also occur because journalists carry their cultural biases with them when reporting in a foreign context.”
e.g. American values/ways of doing things being seen as normal. Seeing foreign ways as “incomprehensible” or “despicable”.
“…the journalistic practice of deploying simplistic labels.”
Taking a complex, sometimes chaotic situation/place and putting into 20 words or less and putting it in a way that U.S. audience will relate to. “ethnic cleansing” label “white supremacy” label used in coverage of S.A.
“…journalists routinely use binary oppositions when describing foreign contexts” Related to #3
Common characters in a news story: “good guys” vs. “bad guys” Other characters? Common plot? Again, oversimplification.
“…when sent to report on foreign contexts, journalists tend to (subconsciously) select contacts with whom they feel comfortable working…”
“…foreign issues are read in terms of ‘home’ understandings and agendas.”
e.g., S.A. anti-apartheid struggle = U.S. civil rights struggle. Similar to # 3
What if we took these ways of misreading and applied them to Andersen Cooper's work? Any misreading in his reporting?
Video comes from the DVD which accompanies Cooper's book Dispatches from the Edge: A Memoir of War, Disasters, and Survival,
In his book, Global Communication: Theories, Stakeholders, and Trends, Thomas McPhail defines the CNN effect as "the process by which the coverage of a foreign event by CNN causes that event to be a primary concern for its audience, which in turn forces the federal government to act." One could add to the U.S. government, then as part of its foreign policy, may influence foreign governments/peoples through direct action (e.g., war) or through sanctions. See video clip below.
Does CNN still have this influence on foreign policy? Any other news networks, U.S. or otherwise, have this influence? Any other form of media now has this influence? Think: Arab Spring (see first 2 minutes). Think: Kony2012 (see short clip). What role does social media play in shaping foreign policy? How's that process work?
The "social media effect" is defined here as the process by which the coverage of an event on Facebook, Twitter, YouTube etc. causes that event to be a primary concern for its audiences around the world, which in turn forces foreign governments to act, thus further influencing the event.
See clip below for more the idea of social media effect.
What are the different types of press systems around the world?
In the late 1950s Siebert, Peterson and Schramm (aka Uncle Wilbur) identified four types of press systems that existed in countries up until the 1950s.
Notes/Examples: Soviet Union and other communist countries
Libertarian
Purpose of the Press: To inform (i.e., present the facts) and monitor the government
Ownership of Press: Mostly private
Notes/Examples: England
Social Responsibility
Purpose: To monitor the government. While another purpose is to inform (i.e., present the facts to) the citizens, this press system goes beyond just presenting the facts to promoting understanding and discussion/debate related to those facts.
Ownership of Press: Private
Notes/Examples: U.S., Canada
What would it be like being a journalism student or a journalist working in these different press systems?
Do you think that these four theories still adequately describe the types of press systems that operate in the countries of today? Does, for example, the introduction of social media, require modifications to the four theories?
The work of Siebert, Peterson and Schramm has received criticism and updating. If you are interested, see for example the following books.
The idea of presenting a development message within a fictional program is the type of development communication that is called entertainment education. The World Bank is a multinational organization that uses entertainment education in their work. See the video below for examples and background information.
Below is another example of entertainment education. Tim Reid, noted Norfolk State University alumnus and actor/director/producer, and NSU students (Maryna Kariuk and Shimira Cole) were involved in the making of "Hear My Son". How exactly is this an example of entertainment education?
CHARACTERISTICS OF INNOVATIONS
The characteristics (or attributes) of innovations, as perceived by individuals, help to explain their rate of adoption. Characteristics of innovations are one important set of variables influencing the rate of adoption.
Relative Advantage
Relative advantage is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better than the idea it supersedes
e.g. economic profitability, decrease in discomfort, savings in time and effort, immediacy of reward
Compatibility
Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent with existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters.
Example: rap music and the role of MTV in making rap accessible and acceptable for all youth (Black & White).
Complexity
Complexity is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to understand and use.
Example: DOS vs. Windows
Trialability
Trialability is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis.
Observability
Observability is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others.
Examples: solar panels & DBS, PrimeStar, DISH and the like
Given the above, how could diffusion of innovations (a communication theory) be used in development work? How could diffusion of innovations be used to fight a health issue in a community or developing nation? How could you use the characteristics of innovations to better fight a health issue in a community or developing nation?
Dr. Wilbur Schramm
Founder of the social science study of communication (late 40s-50s) and key founder of development communication.
1950s:
Post-WWII & Cold War -- Newly independent nations struggling (the “terrible ascent”)
1960s:
Schramm: How to help them? His answer: w/ mass media - “the great multiplier.” Need to bring in mass media technology.
1970s:
Many countries implemented mass media programs.
1980s:
1) Concern with “Neo-imperialism”
Hamid Mowlana
2) Mowlana: users of mass media blind to the importance of traditional forms of communication in some societies/cultures. “Technology vs. Tradition” (Mowlana)
1990s:
Use of mass media to aid in development, but w/ caution regarding culture. Example: AIDS/HIV education in radio program in Tanzania & TV soap opera in China (Rogers)
2000s:
New issues and use of new communication technologies
(Sources: based on Mowlana, 1996, 1997, Stevenson, 1993, Rogers, 1997)
Now back to the 40s and 50s...
Coming out of World War II the U.S. was in good shape (economically, politically, etc.), but many of the nations of Europe faced problems.
Some of the series is available online. As you watch the clips below pay close attention to the Marshall Plan. What relationship does it have to development communication?
U.S. provided $$ and expertise in "reconstructing" Europe. U.S. foreign policy (lead by Truman) changed isolationism to “active leadership.” The U.S. offered the Marshall Plan* (more on Marshall Plan from CNN).
See the clips 0:00 to 1:50 and from about 20:30 to 28:00
Why should the U.S. help European countries after WWII?
humanitarian concerns (White Man’s Burden again?)
stop spread of communism!
Truman Doctrine: to defend freedom & democracy worldwide.
Edward T. Hall
After reconstructing Europe Truman offered the world “the benefits of our [U.S.] scientific advances and industrial progress… for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas.”
This was called the Point Four Program. (Director, Edward Hall)
One of the key tasks taken on by Hall was teaching U.S. diplomats intercultural communication skills. The formal study of intercultural communication can be traced back to Hall and this program. Hall has been called the founding father of intercultural communication study.
The government lacked knowledge on how to develop nations, so they turned to academia. Development theories were developed in economics, psychology, political science, sociology, and communication. For example, Wilbur Schramm offered his theory/approach to development. By the mid-70s, development programs were recognized an ineffective. Schramm, Rogers and others recognized the faults.
Everett M. Rogers
What was wrong? According to Rogers (1976)
The old way of doing development programs had the following errors:
They assume infinite economic growth, ignore problems like population growth, pollution, etc., and do not take into account the "quality of life."
They emphasize technology and capital rather than labor, thus encouraging economic dependence on advanced countries. Low priority to agriculture.
It blames the developing countries for their failings, ignoring external factors beyond their control.
It takes an ethnocentric (Western) bias by emphasizing the modernization of "traditional" individuals.
(Sources: International Encyclopedia of Communication, "Development Communication," 1989; "Marshall Plan" Britannica Online.].).
NOTE: Three of the scholars mentioned above (Mowlana, Hall and Rogers) were professors of mine. They are part of my intellectual family. And, now you are part of this intellectual family too. As for Schramm, it actually turns out that I might be biologically related to "Uncle Wilbur." Born in the same small city, graduated from same undergrad college, same family tree roots, etc.
So, dehumanization of the enemy was done in the past all over the world. Does it still happen in the 21st century? That's the question that my co-author and I asked in our study of editorial cartoons of bin Laden and the Taliban after the events of 9/11.
(pp. 137-155). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
by Sam Keen
)
by Ghemawat
, Thomas McPhail defines the CNN effect as "the process by which the coverage of a foreign event by CNN causes that event to be a primary concern for its audience, which in turn forces the federal government to act." One could add to the U.S. government, then as part of its foreign policy, may influence foreign governments/peoples through direct action (e.g., war) or through sanctions. See video clip below.
. (See also background 
