MassMedia: Visual Media: Ideological Criticism: Basic Concepts (U6-P2) Fa14

Films can be written, using perhaps Field's method.  Films can also be written about.  Films can be analyzed and critiqued.  One means of analyzing a film is to do an ideological critique of it.

What is ideological criticism? How do you do an ideological critique of a film or television series?

Ideological Criticism:

For our purposes here, ideological criticism is a particular type of rhetorical criticism.

Previously, we've gotten an idea of what rhetorical criticism is.  So, what is ideological criticism?  What is an ideology?

Ideology:

• “A system of shared meaning that represents the world for us; it gives us a common picture of of reality” (p. 296).
• “A pattern or set of ideas, assumptions, beliefs, values, or interpretations of the world by which a culture or group operates” (Foss, p. 291).

An ideology is a characteristic of a group.  Groups have ideologies that individuals in those groups follow.  In a diverse society with many different groups, it is typically the ideology of the dominant group that is promoted in that society.

So, an ideology shapes the way we see the world, what we pay attention to and what we do not.

What purpose does an ideology serve?  Where does an ideology come from?

And now to some related terms.

1. Hegemony:

• “the process by which a social order remains stable by generating consent to its parameters through the production and distribution of ideological texts that define social reality for the majority of the people.” (from Rybacki & Rybacki, Oprah article)

What are these ideological texts?  Books, newspapers, web sites, political speeches, movies, etc.

So, these media texts develop in us an ideological perspective?  They tell us how we should think?  How we should view the world?

2. False consciousness:

• “a failure to recognize the instruments of one's oppression or exploitation as one's own creation, as when members of an oppressed class unwittingly adopt views of the oppressor class” (American Heritage Dictionary).

So, there are somethings that we may not be aware of, we don't see?
So, we can live in a dominant ideology and be blind to other ways of seeing?


With these above concepts in mind, let's look at ideological criticism. Ideological criticism is a means of bringing often overlooked ideologies out into the light for all to see.

The Basic Argument of Ideological Criticism

1. “When an ideology becomes hegemonic in a culture, certain interests or groups are served by it more than others – it represents the perspective of some groups more than others” (Foss, p. 294).
2. “When an ideology becomes hegemonic through a process of accord and consent, it accumulates ‘the symbolic power to map or classify the world for others…’ It invites ‘us to understand the world in certain ways, but not in others’” (Foss, p. 295).
3. “To maintain a position of dominance, a hegemonic ideology must be constructed, renewed, reinforced, and defended continually through the use of rhetorical strategies and practices” (Foss, p. 295).

How is the hegemonic ideology maintained? Who? With what?  Those of us in the media, are we responsible?

What film or television series would you do an ideological critique of and why?

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MediaTech: Internet/New Media: The Basics: How Email Works (U6-P2) [VID] Fa14

How does email work?  What are the steps in the process?  The parts?

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InterculturalCom: Cultural Identity and The Debut: Minority Identity Development (U6-P2) Fa14

The stages of minority identify development are illustrated well in the film, The Debut.

The stages are as below.

Note: Click on images to see a larger version.

Source: Intercultural Communication in Contexts by Martin and Nakayama



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GlobalMedia: Development Communication: A History (Marshall Plan, etc.) (U6-P2) Sp14

"Uncle" Wilbur

A Historical Sketch of Development Communication

First a quick overview...

Dr. Wilbur Schramm
Founder of the social science study of communication (late 40s-50s) and key founder of development communication.

• 1950s: 
• Post-WWII & Cold War -- Newly independent nations struggling (the “terrible ascent”)
• 1960s: 
• Schramm: How to help them? His answer: w/ mass media - “the great multiplier.” Need to bring in mass media technology.
• 1970s: 
• Many countries implemented mass media programs.
• 1980s: 
• 1) Concern with “Neo-imperialism”



Hamid Mowlana

• 2) Mowlana: users of mass media blind to the importance of traditional forms of communication in some societies/cultures. “Technology vs. Tradition” (Mowlana)
• 1990s: 
• Use of mass media to aid in development, but w/ caution regarding culture. Example: AIDS/HIV education in radio program in Tanzania & TV soap opera in China (Rogers)
• 2000s: 
• New issues and use of new communication technologies

(Sources: based on Mowlana, 1996, 1997, Stevenson, 1993, Rogers, 1997)



Now back to the 40s and 50s...

Coming out of World War II the U.S. was in good shape (economically, politically, etc.), but many of the nations of Europe faced problems.

To get a sense of the problem faces see CNN Perspectives Presents Cold War. (See also background info on this CNN series.)

Some of the series is available online.  As you watch the clips below pay close attention to the Marshall Plan.  What relationship does it have to development communication?

U.S. provided $$ and expertise in "reconstructing" Europe. U.S. foreign policy (lead by Truman) changed isolationism to “active leadership.” The U.S. offered the Marshall Plan* (more on Marshall Plan from CNN).

See the clips 0:00 to 1:50 and from 20:28 to 27:52




Why should the U.S. help European countries after WWII?

1. humanitarian concerns (White Man’s Burden again?)
2. stop spread of communism!

Truman Doctrine: to defend freedom & democracy worldwide.

Edward T. Hall

After reconstructing Europe Truman offered the world “the benefits of our [U.S.] scientific advances and industrial progress… for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas.”

This was called the Point Four Program. (Director, Edward Hall)
One of the key tasks taken on by Hall was teaching U.S. diplomats intercultural communication skills. The formal study of intercultural communication can be traced back to Hall and this program.  Hall has been called the founding father of intercultural communication study.

The government lacked knowledge on how to develop nations, so they turned to academia. Development theories were developed in economics, psychology, political science, sociology, and communication. For example, Wilbur Schramm offered his theory/approach to development.  By the mid-70s, development programs were recognized an ineffective. Schramm, Rogers and others recognized the faults.

Everett M. Rogers

What was wrong? According to Rogers (1976)
The old way of doing development programs had the following errors:

1. They assume infinite economic growth, ignore problems like population growth, pollution, etc., and do not take into account the "quality of life."
2. They emphasize technology and capital rather than labor, thus encouraging economic dependence on advanced countries. Low priority to agriculture.
3. It blames the developing countries for their failings, ignoring external factors beyond their control.
4. It takes an ethnocentric (Western) bias by emphasizing the modernization of "traditional" individuals.

(Sources: International Encyclopedia of Communication, "Development Communication," 1989; "Marshall Plan" Britannica Online.].).



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MassMedia: Rhetorical Criticism, "Ohio" & Kent State (U6-P2) [VID]

Quantitative research papers which use methods like experiments, surveys, and content analysis typically follow a certain format.

Quantitative research paper outline:

1. Introduction 
2. Review of literature
3. Research question(s)/hypothesis
4. Methods 
5. Results
6. Discussion 
7. References

Rhetorical criticism papers usually take a different approach.

Writing the Rhetorical Criticism Essay (based on S.K. Foss)

• Introduction
• Identify artifact, RQ, Contribution to Theory, Hint of Justification
• Description of the Artifact
• Text, Context & Justification
• Description of the Unit of Analysis
• What specifically about the text is being studied?
• Determined by method
• Report of the Findings of the Analysis
• Bulk of the essay
• Organization determined by method
• Contributing to Answering the Research Question
• Answer RQ, implications, significance
• References

In the introduction the author identifies the artifact or text being studied (e.g., a TV commercial) and indicates research questions (RQs) they want to answer (e.g., what words or phrases are used and what role do they play in persuading?).  The author would also indicate how their study adds to previously developed theory and also give some indication of why their study is important.

In the description of the artifact (or text), the author would describe the details about the text (who, what, where, when, etc.).  There is no analysis yet, just the facts about the text. The author would also provide some context for the text.  For example, if an author were analyzing a protest song of the 1960s, the author would want to provide description of what was happening in U.S. society at the time (Vietnam War, assassinations, civil rights, etc.).  The author would elaborate more on why their research, their paper is important.  That is, give justification for why their work should be read.


Lyrics for "Ohio"

If you are interested in some context, see Kent State shootings article.

In the description of the unit of analysis, the author indicates what specific aspect of the text will be studied.  For example, a researcher studying a presidential debate may just focus on the nonverbal aspects of the debate.

The author then spends most of the essay going through their analysis detail by detail from the beginning of the text to the end.

After a detailed analysis, the author closes by offering an answer to the initial research question(s), talks about  what their findings mean for future research and stresses the importance of their research.



If you did some rhetorical criticism on a song or a set of songs, what would they be and what do you think you'd find?



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GlobalMedia: International Journalism: The CNN Effect & the Social Media Effect (U6-P2)

In his book, Global Communication: Theories, Stakeholders, and Trends, Thomas McPhail defines the CNN effect as "the process by which the coverage of a foreign event by CNN causes that event to be a primary concern for its audience, which in turn forces the federal government to act."  One could add to the U.S. government, then as part of its foreign policy, may influence foreign governments/peoples through direct action (e.g., war) or through sanctions.  See video clip.



Does CNN still have this influence on foreign policy?  Any other news networks, U.S. or otherwise, have this influence?  Any other form of media now has this influence?  Think: Arab Spring (see first 2 minutes).  Think: Kony2012 (see short clip).  What role does social media play in shaping foreign policy?  How's that process work?

The "social media effect" is defined here as the process by which the coverage of an event on Facebook, Twitter, YouTube  etc. causes that event to be a primary concern for its audiences around the world, which in turn forces foreign governments to act, thus further influencing the event.

See clip below for more the idea of social media effect.

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MediaTech: Cell Phones and the Consequences of Tech: Types of Consequences (Rogers) (U6-P2) fa12

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GlobalMedia: International Advertising & Public Relations: Campaigns & Culture (U6-P2)

A campaign is “an operation or series of operations energetically pursued to accomplish a purpose: an advertising campaign for a new product; a candidate's political campaign” (American Heritage Dictionary)

An advertising campaign for a certain new product could contain a "series of operations" like

• putting out press releases to the news media,
• putting ads in newspapers and
• posting a viral video on YouTube about the new product.

The purpose of all these "operations" is to encourage purchase of the product.

Now, what about going global?


According to McPhail,
"There are three strategic models for planning global campaigns: standardized, adaptive, and country-specific.  In the standardized model, strategy is formed at the global headquarters and implemented in all operating areas [same or very similar in all countries].  In the adaptive model, a basic strategy is adapted appropriately for each country where it will be implemented.  In a country-specific model, the strategic planning is shaped to fit one country" (Global Communication: Theories, Stakeholders, and Trends)



Let's say we are doing advertising for the multinational corporation, McDonald's.  As part of the campaign that we are managing, they want 30 second TV ads for their new salads.  They want to sell salads (or localized versions of salads) around the world in many different countries.  Using each of the above models, how would this be done?  See any benefits or drawbacks to each approach?  What about in terms of costs and effectiveness?



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MediaTech: Cell Phones and the Consequences of Tech: Types of Consequences (Rogers) (U6-P2)

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