MassMedia: Visual Media: Ideological Criticism: How to Do Ideological Criticism (U6-P3) Fa14

How to Do Ideological Criticism (according to Foss)

“The primary goal of the ideological critic is to discover and make visible the dominant ideology or ideologies embedded in an artifact and ideologies that are being muted in it” (Foss, p. 295-296).

• Step 1: Formulate RQs
• What is the ideology embodied in this artifact?
• What are the implication of this ideology?
• What are the alternative ideologies not expressed?
• Are there aspects of the artifact that support emancipation? Etc.
• Step 2: Select Unit of Analysis
• What specific aspect(s) of the artifact/text will you focus on?
• Step 3: Analyzing the Artifact
• Identification of Nature of Ideology
• What does the artifact ask the audience to believe, understand, feel or think about?
• What are the arguments made in the artifact?
• What is seen as good or valued?
• What ideologies are hidden?
• Identification of Interests Included
• What is the power structure and what groups are supported?
• Identification of Strategies in Support of Ideology
• How does the rhetoric legitimize the ideology and interests of some groups over others?
• How exactly is the dominant ideology supported?
• How exactly are alternative ideologies hidden?

Source: Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and Practice

If you did an ideological critic of the following cartoon, how would you do that?

The Brotherhood of Man - Post-WWII Animated Cartoon Against Prejudice and Racism (1946)


Have any rhetorical texts you might analyze using ideological criticism?  What ideologies do they promote? What ideologies do they mute?  What do you think you'd find?


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MassMedia: Visual Media: Ideological Criticism: Basic Concepts (U6-P2) Fa14

Films can be written, using perhaps Field's method.  Films can also be written about.  Films can be analyzed and critiqued.  One means of analyzing a film is to do an ideological critique of it.

What is ideological criticism? How do you do an ideological critique of a film or television series?

Ideological Criticism:

For our purposes here, ideological criticism is a particular type of rhetorical criticism.

Previously, we've gotten an idea of what rhetorical criticism is.  So, what is ideological criticism?  What is an ideology?

Ideology:

• “A system of shared meaning that represents the world for us; it gives us a common picture of of reality” (p. 296).
• “A pattern or set of ideas, assumptions, beliefs, values, or interpretations of the world by which a culture or group operates” (Foss, p. 291).

An ideology is a characteristic of a group.  Groups have ideologies that individuals in those groups follow.  In a diverse society with many different groups, it is typically the ideology of the dominant group that is promoted in that society.

So, an ideology shapes the way we see the world, what we pay attention to and what we do not.

What purpose does an ideology serve?  Where does an ideology come from?

And now to some related terms.

1. Hegemony:

• “the process by which a social order remains stable by generating consent to its parameters through the production and distribution of ideological texts that define social reality for the majority of the people.” (from Rybacki & Rybacki, Oprah article)

What are these ideological texts?  Books, newspapers, web sites, political speeches, movies, etc.

So, these media texts develop in us an ideological perspective?  They tell us how we should think?  How we should view the world?

2. False consciousness:

• “a failure to recognize the instruments of one's oppression or exploitation as one's own creation, as when members of an oppressed class unwittingly adopt views of the oppressor class” (American Heritage Dictionary).

So, there are somethings that we may not be aware of, we don't see?
So, we can live in a dominant ideology and be blind to other ways of seeing?


With these above concepts in mind, let's look at ideological criticism. Ideological criticism is a means of bringing often overlooked ideologies out into the light for all to see.

The Basic Argument of Ideological Criticism

1. “When an ideology becomes hegemonic in a culture, certain interests or groups are served by it more than others – it represents the perspective of some groups more than others” (Foss, p. 294).
2. “When an ideology becomes hegemonic through a process of accord and consent, it accumulates ‘the symbolic power to map or classify the world for others…’ It invites ‘us to understand the world in certain ways, but not in others’” (Foss, p. 295).
3. “To maintain a position of dominance, a hegemonic ideology must be constructed, renewed, reinforced, and defended continually through the use of rhetorical strategies and practices” (Foss, p. 295).

How is the hegemonic ideology maintained? Who? With what?  Those of us in the media, are we responsible?

What film or television series would you do an ideological critique of and why?

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MassMedia: Visual Media: The Screenplay and Syd (U6-P1) Fa14

Previously, we covered the key components of a story and the key things to keep in mind to strengthen a story.

Now, let's move to more on plot structure.


When it comes to Hollywood films, one of the key experts on screenplays and plots is Syd Field.

Field defines a screenplay as “a story told with pictures, in dialogue and description, and placed within the context of dramatic structure.”

As for "dramatic structure," Field instructs his students to use the plot structure as shown below.

Setup (Act I): let the audience know who the main character is and what the story is about. Identify the need of the main character.
Confrontation (Act II): The main character needs something and there will be people/things that stop him/her.
Resolution (Act III):  How does it end? What happens to the main character? Need met or not?
Plot Point: “an incident, or event, that hooks into the story and spins it around into another direction” (Field).


Watch the following trailer of Die Hard and look for the 3 acts.  Do you spot Plot Point 1 near the end of Act I?  What happens at the Christmas party?



Now, think about your favorite films.  Do you see this same plot structure?

Developing a full or even partial screenplay is beyond the scope of things here, but quickly coming up with a a film treatment is not.

A film or screenplay treatment is one page synopsis of a film yet to be produced.  It is typically written before the full script.  A trailer script is not a treatment.  A trailer usually leaves the end of the film (Act III) a mystery, but a treatment would not.

Could you write a treatment for the next big film written by you and perhaps starring you?  You could apply the above discussed plot structure and previously discussed concepts, like character identification, yes?


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MediaTech: Internet/New Media: The Basics: What is a Blog, RSS and RSS Reader? (U6-P3) [VID] Fa14

What is a blog?  How do you blog (steps in the process)?



What is the relationship between a blog and Twitter or Facebook?  What is a micro-blog?

What are ways you can read and/or subscribe to a blog?  What's an RSS and how does it work?





Feedly is a popular example of a RSS reader.




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MediaTech: Internet/New Media: The Basics: How Email Works (U6-P2) [VID] Fa14

How does email work?  What are the steps in the process?  The parts?

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MediaTech: Internet/New Media: Basic: The Jobs-Gates Rivalry (U6-P1) [VID] Fa14

"Are you a pirate?"  What's that mean?  Is that a good thing or a bad thing?
Any life lessons you learn from this movie?
Any career lessons you learn from this movie?


The Pirates of Silicon Valley tells the story of the Jobs-Gates rivalry from the early 1970s until the late 1990s.



The following video interview of Jobs' biographer picks up the Jobs-Gates story where Pirates left off.





For a humorous, but insightful look at the rivalry you might also want to check out the "Steve Jobs vs Bill Gates. Epic Rap Battle."



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InterculturalCom: Cultural Identity and The Debut: Minority Identity Development (U6-P2) Fa14

The stages of minority identify development are illustrated well in the film, The Debut.

The stages are as below.

Note: Click on images to see a larger version.

Source: Intercultural Communication in Contexts by Martin and Nakayama



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InterculturalCom: Cultural Identity and The Debut (U6-P1) Fa14

The concepts of cultural identity and cultural identity development are illustrated well in the film, The Debut.

Besides helping us to understand cultural identity, the film also allows us to learn about some Filipino culture.

Here are some Filipino cultural literacy to learn from the film.

• Tagalog: a key language of the Philippines  
• Barkada: peer group
• Oo: yes
• Singkil: "the stick dance"

Collectivism/Individualism Through Dance 
See this video I posted on YouTube.  How does it relate to the film?


The above clip is from I'm Normal, You're Weird! Understanding Other Cultures. This was an excellent teaching resource.  I wish that it was released in some form on DVD.


The film also shows some Filipino values:

• Family/Group (Authority)
• Food
• Education/Success

Lastly the film gives a sense of the Filipino "Time Orientation," how time is used.



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GlobalMedia: Development Communication: Diffusion of Innovations (U6-P3) Sp14

Everett Rogers

Discuss Diffusion of Innovations as an Approach to Development.

Everett Rogers wrote Diffusion of Innovations (1962, 1971, 1983, 1995, 2003).

What is an innovation?

• An idea, object or practice...
• Perceived as new...
• By an individual or organization.

What is the diffusion of innovations?

• An innovation ...
• Communicated via channels...
• Over time...
• Among the members of a social system.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INNOVATIONS
The characteristics (or attributes) of innovations, as perceived by individuals, help to explain their rate of adoption.  Characteristics of innovations are one important set of variables influencing the rate of adoption.

1. Relative Advantage
1. Relative advantage is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better than the idea it supersedes
2. e.g. economic profitability, decrease in discomfort, savings in time and effort, immediacy of reward
2. Compatibility
1. Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent with existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters.
2. Example: rap music and the role of MTV in making rap accessible and acceptable for all youth (Black & White).
3. Complexity
1. Complexity is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to understand and use.
2. Example: DOS vs. Windows
4. Trialability
1. Trialability is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis.
5. Observability
1. Observability is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others.
2. Examples: solar panels & DBS, PrimeStar, DISH and the like

Given the above, how could diffusion of innovations (a communication theory) be used in development work?   How could diffusion of innovations be used to fight a health issue in a community or developing nation?

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GlobalMedia: Development Communication: A History (Marshall Plan, etc.) (U6-P2) Sp14

"Uncle" Wilbur

A Historical Sketch of Development Communication

First a quick overview...

Dr. Wilbur Schramm
Founder of the social science study of communication (late 40s-50s) and key founder of development communication.

• 1950s: 
• Post-WWII & Cold War -- Newly independent nations struggling (the “terrible ascent”)
• 1960s: 
• Schramm: How to help them? His answer: w/ mass media - “the great multiplier.” Need to bring in mass media technology.
• 1970s: 
• Many countries implemented mass media programs.
• 1980s: 
• 1) Concern with “Neo-imperialism”



Hamid Mowlana

• 2) Mowlana: users of mass media blind to the importance of traditional forms of communication in some societies/cultures. “Technology vs. Tradition” (Mowlana)
• 1990s: 
• Use of mass media to aid in development, but w/ caution regarding culture. Example: AIDS/HIV education in radio program in Tanzania & TV soap opera in China (Rogers)
• 2000s: 
• New issues and use of new communication technologies

(Sources: based on Mowlana, 1996, 1997, Stevenson, 1993, Rogers, 1997)



Now back to the 40s and 50s...

Coming out of World War II the U.S. was in good shape (economically, politically, etc.), but many of the nations of Europe faced problems.

To get a sense of the problem faces see CNN Perspectives Presents Cold War. (See also background info on this CNN series.)

Some of the series is available online.  As you watch the clips below pay close attention to the Marshall Plan.  What relationship does it have to development communication?

U.S. provided $$ and expertise in "reconstructing" Europe. U.S. foreign policy (lead by Truman) changed isolationism to “active leadership.” The U.S. offered the Marshall Plan* (more on Marshall Plan from CNN).

See the clips 0:00 to 1:50 and from 20:28 to 27:52




Why should the U.S. help European countries after WWII?

1. humanitarian concerns (White Man’s Burden again?)
2. stop spread of communism!

Truman Doctrine: to defend freedom & democracy worldwide.

Edward T. Hall

After reconstructing Europe Truman offered the world “the benefits of our [U.S.] scientific advances and industrial progress… for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas.”

This was called the Point Four Program. (Director, Edward Hall)
One of the key tasks taken on by Hall was teaching U.S. diplomats intercultural communication skills. The formal study of intercultural communication can be traced back to Hall and this program.  Hall has been called the founding father of intercultural communication study.

The government lacked knowledge on how to develop nations, so they turned to academia. Development theories were developed in economics, psychology, political science, sociology, and communication. For example, Wilbur Schramm offered his theory/approach to development.  By the mid-70s, development programs were recognized an ineffective. Schramm, Rogers and others recognized the faults.

Everett M. Rogers

What was wrong? According to Rogers (1976)
The old way of doing development programs had the following errors:

1. They assume infinite economic growth, ignore problems like population growth, pollution, etc., and do not take into account the "quality of life."
2. They emphasize technology and capital rather than labor, thus encouraging economic dependence on advanced countries. Low priority to agriculture.
3. It blames the developing countries for their failings, ignoring external factors beyond their control.
4. It takes an ethnocentric (Western) bias by emphasizing the modernization of "traditional" individuals.

(Sources: International Encyclopedia of Communication, "Development Communication," 1989; "Marshall Plan" Britannica Online.].).



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GlobalMedia: Development Communication: Some Key Terms (U6-P1) Sp14

Define/explain the terms development, development communication and development journalism.


Development: "purposive changes undertaken in a society to achieve what may be regarded generally as a different ('improved') state of social and economic affairs"(Hernández-Ramos & Schramm, 1989).


Development projects typically focus on certain areas/issue of a society (e.g. agriculture, health, nutrition, family planning, women's empowerment, etc.)

• See United Nations Development Programme
• Check out especially info on NETAID concert
• See also United Nations: Economic and Social Development

Development communication: the use of communication technology and principles to aid in the development of a society.


Development journalism: a 'branch' of development communication in which news media are used.
Journalism: "the collection and editing of news for presentation through the media"(M-W Dictionary)



If you had lots of money (through a grant, etc.) and you wanted to do good in the world, what would you do?  If you wanted to help with some health issue in another country, what would you do?
If you wanted to help and you wanted to put your media knowledge and media skills to use, what would you do?




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MassMedia: Rhetorical Criticism, "Ohio" & Kent State (U6-P2) [VID]

Quantitative research papers which use methods like experiments, surveys, and content analysis typically follow a certain format.

Quantitative research paper outline:

1. Introduction 
2. Review of literature
3. Research question(s)/hypothesis
4. Methods 
5. Results
6. Discussion 
7. References

Rhetorical criticism papers usually take a different approach.

Writing the Rhetorical Criticism Essay (based on S.K. Foss)

• Introduction
• Identify artifact, RQ, Contribution to Theory, Hint of Justification
• Description of the Artifact
• Text, Context & Justification
• Description of the Unit of Analysis
• What specifically about the text is being studied?
• Determined by method
• Report of the Findings of the Analysis
• Bulk of the essay
• Organization determined by method
• Contributing to Answering the Research Question
• Answer RQ, implications, significance
• References

In the introduction the author identifies the artifact or text being studied (e.g., a TV commercial) and indicates research questions (RQs) they want to answer (e.g., what words or phrases are used and what role do they play in persuading?).  The author would also indicate how their study adds to previously developed theory and also give some indication of why their study is important.

In the description of the artifact (or text), the author would describe the details about the text (who, what, where, when, etc.).  There is no analysis yet, just the facts about the text. The author would also provide some context for the text.  For example, if an author were analyzing a protest song of the 1960s, the author would want to provide description of what was happening in U.S. society at the time (Vietnam War, assassinations, civil rights, etc.).  The author would elaborate more on why their research, their paper is important.  That is, give justification for why their work should be read.


Lyrics for "Ohio"

If you are interested in some context, see Kent State shootings article.

In the description of the unit of analysis, the author indicates what specific aspect of the text will be studied.  For example, a researcher studying a presidential debate may just focus on the nonverbal aspects of the debate.

The author then spends most of the essay going through their analysis detail by detail from the beginning of the text to the end.

After a detailed analysis, the author closes by offering an answer to the initial research question(s), talks about  what their findings mean for future research and stresses the importance of their research.



If you did some rhetorical criticism on a song or a set of songs, what would they be and what do you think you'd find?



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MassMedia: Textual Analysis, Rhetorical Criticism, Commercials & Songs (U6-P1) [VID]

To answer research questions (RQs) researchers use research methods.

The four main research methods, at least in the social sciences, are experiments, surveys, ethnographies and textual analysis.

A researcher who does textual analysis is a researcher who studies a particular text or set of texts.  A text is a communication artifact. A text could be written, visual, electronic, etc.  Examples of a text are an email, a news broadcast, a film, a recorded conversation, an advertisement, a speech, an editorial cartoon or a song.

There are two main types of textual analysis.  One is more quantitative and the other is more qualitative research.

Content analysis is "a form of textual analysis used to identify, enumerate, and analyze occurrences of specific messages and message characteristics embedded in relevant texts" (Frey, et al.)

An example of content analysis would be a researcher who studies post 9/11 editorial cartoons to determine how the enemy is portrayed in the cartoons by caterogizing and counting up the occurrences of certain types of portrayals.

Rhetorical criticism, on the other hand, is more qualitative.

Rhetorical criticism: "research involving the description, analysis, interpretation, and evaluation of persuasive uses of communication" (Frey, et al)

Notice how rhetorical criticism focuses on persuasive texts, texts that potentially influence an audience.

There is a long history to rhetorical criticism from ancient times to modern times.

A person doing rhetorical criticism may study, for example, campaign speeches or advertisements to analyze how the text attempted to persuaded and how effective it was in persuading.

Take for example the commercial shown during the 2013 Superbowl. What are the ways in which the commercials attempt to persuade?  Is there anything they do visually?  What about their choice of words. Also, how effective are they?



So, campaign speeches and commercials persuasive texts and thus texts that could be analyzed using rhetorical criticism, but what about songs?  Some songs?  All songs?



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GlobalMedia: International Journalism: Journalists in War

If you are interested in learning about the experiences of journalist who cover war, you may want to watch and listen to the clips below.


1. A trailer for "Restrepo" 
This documentary, co-directed by journalists Tim Hetherington and Sebastian Junger, won the 2010 Grand Jury Prize at the Sundance Film Festival and was nominated for an Academy Award.



2. An interview with Tim Hetherington.



3. Journalist, Sebastian Junger, talks about his experiences in covering war and about his friend Tim Hetherington. [Note: Thanks Terry for sharing this audio clip.]


4. AC360 - Photojournalists Tim Hetherington & Chris Hondros...







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GlobalMedia: International Journalism: Being a Journalist in a Foreign Place (U6-P3)

Imagine being a journalist in a far off land.

Wouldn't be easy, would it?

First, you may, depending on where you are and what you are covering, be physically harmed or killed.  See Anderson Cooper clip below, for just one example.  

The video clip below is from February 9, 2011



And, if you are curious, check out some recent news about about foreign journalists being hurt or killed in the past year month.

It is also not easy being a foreign journalist because you may misread/misunderstand what you are covering in that foreign land.  It is a challenge.

P. Eric Louw, in his chapter "Journalist Reporting from Foreign Places" in Global Journalism: Topical Issues and Media Systems (4th Edition), writes about the challenges of being a foreign journalist.

Thesis of chapter:

• “Journalist coverage of foreign places increasingly influences the governance of those places.” (e.g., CNN effect.)
• “The emergence of international governance based on foreign news-driven mediated realities has inherent dangers."

“Double Misreadings”?

• “Relying on the news media to understand distant places inherently produces a double misreading because…”
• Journalist can misread the news event and
• We (the audience) can misread what the journalist is saying.
• “journalists generally are not equipped to read distant contexts, and neither are their audiences.

Journalist misread for several reasons.

1. “First, journalists arriving in a new context are foreigners [who don’t know the history, the religions, etc.]
2. “Misreadings also occur because journalists carry their cultural biases with them when reporting in a foreign context.”
1. e.g. American values/ways of doing things being seen as normal. Seeing foreign ways as “incomprehensible” or “despicable”.
3. “…the journalistic practice of deploying simplistic labels.” 
1. Taking a complex, sometimes chaotic situation/place and putting into 20 words or less and putting it in a way that U.S. audience will relate to.  “ethnic cleansing” label “white supremacy” label used in coverage of S.A.
4. “…journalists routinely use binary oppositions when describing foreign contexts”   Related to #3  
1. Common characters in a news story: “good guys” vs. “bad guys” Other characters?  Common plot?  Again, oversimplification.
5. “…when sent to report on foreign contexts, journalists tend to (subconsciously) select contacts with whom they feel comfortable working…”
6. “…foreign issues are read in terms of ‘home’ understandings and agendas.” 
1. e.g., S.A. anti-apartheid struggle = U.S. civil rights struggle.  Similar to # 3

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GlobalMedia: International Journalism: The CNN Effect & the Social Media Effect (U6-P2)

In his book, Global Communication: Theories, Stakeholders, and Trends, Thomas McPhail defines the CNN effect as "the process by which the coverage of a foreign event by CNN causes that event to be a primary concern for its audience, which in turn forces the federal government to act."  One could add to the U.S. government, then as part of its foreign policy, may influence foreign governments/peoples through direct action (e.g., war) or through sanctions.  See video clip.



Does CNN still have this influence on foreign policy?  Any other news networks, U.S. or otherwise, have this influence?  Any other form of media now has this influence?  Think: Arab Spring (see first 2 minutes).  Think: Kony2012 (see short clip).  What role does social media play in shaping foreign policy?  How's that process work?

The "social media effect" is defined here as the process by which the coverage of an event on Facebook, Twitter, YouTube  etc. causes that event to be a primary concern for its audiences around the world, which in turn forces foreign governments to act, thus further influencing the event.

See clip below for more the idea of social media effect.

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GlobalMedia: International Journalism: Rodman, North Korea & Theories of the Press (U6-P1)

The Daily Show with Jon Stewart
Get More: Daily Show Full Episodes,Indecision Political Humor,The Daily Show on Facebook

Rodman talking with Kim Jong-un.  Intercultural communication?  International communication?  Both?

Ping-pong diplomacy? Chinese 'ping-pong diplomacy' player dies

What type of press system does North Korea have?  What is the North Korean media like?

Things changing in N. Korea? Live From North Korea, An Instagram Feed



In the late 1950s Siebert, Peterson and Schramm (Wilbur) identified four types of press systems that existed in countries up until the 1950s.

They published their findings in their book titled Four Theories of the Press: The Authoritarian, Libertarian, Social Responsibility and Soviet Communist Concepts of What the Press Should Be and Do (Illini Books)

In the book they highlight the relationship between the form of government that a nation has and the press that operates within it.

The four theories:

1. Authoritarian
1. Purpose of the Press: To serve and promote the government/rulers
2. Ownership of Press: private or public
3. Notes/Examples: England/Western European countries 19th century and before; Afghanistan under the Taliban
2. Soviet-Communist
1. Purpose of the Press: To serve and promote the government or the Communist party
2. Ownership of Press: public
3. Notes/Examples: Soviet Union and other communist countries
3. Libertarian
1. Purpose of the Press: To inform (i.e., present the facts) and monitor the government
2. Ownership of Press: Mostly private
3. Notes/Examples: England
4. Social Responsibility
1. Purpose: To monitor the government.  While another purpose is to inform (i.e., present the facts to) the citizens, this press system goes beyond just presenting the facts to promoting understanding and discussion/debate related to those facts.  
2. Ownership of Press: Private
3. Notes/Examples: U.S., Canada

What would it be like being a journalism student or a journalist working in these different press systems?

Do you think that these four theories still adequately describe the types of press systems that operate in the countries of today?  Does, for example, the introduction on social media, require modifications to the four theories?

The work of Siebert, Peterson and Schramm has received criticism and updating.  If you are interested, see for example the following books.

Last Rights: Revisting Four Theories of the Press (History of Communication)

Normative Theories of the Media: Journalism in Democratic Societies (History of Communication)

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MediaTech: Policy Innovations, Freakonomics & the Cobra Effect [AUD]

If you are interested...

When I was a kid I wanted to be a variety of things when I grew up. I wanted to be an astronomer. I wanted to be an economist.  All varieties of geekness.

The interest in economics still shows up today.  I've read the Freakonomics books and watched the documentary. I also listen regularly to the Freakonomic podcast.  One of the recent episodes of the podcast dealt with the idea of unintended consequences of adopting policy innovations.

Give that I've recently blogged about the consequences of adopting innovations, I thought I'd share the podcast. If you are interested, here it is.


The Cobra Effect: A New Freakonomics Radio Podcast

This podcast is about adopting policy (or law) innovations, but would this apply in anyway to other innovations?  How's this related to adopting media technologies?  What about any media tech policy innovations?

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